Although nanoparticle dispersions can rapidly leak out of the vagina, films may hold the nanoparticles in place for some duration. Nat. The intersection between nanotech and medicine promises really exciting possibilities. 3.1. Corresponding author: abbashajizade@gmail.com; abbashajizade@ihu.ac.ir"Nanotechnology-based detection, prevention and treatment of infectious diseases" Infectious diseases are a significant global concern caused by bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic agents, with varying levels of severity. Biomed. J. Instead of using mRNA, traditional vaccines use either a living or a dead form of a microbe that causes infection. The example here is called layer-by-layer assembly. Nat. However, only two treatments with substantially lower doses of the liposomal combination also produced 100% survival. Inhibitors of this quorum sensing phenomenon have the potential to disrupt biofilms. The FDA created a Nano Task Force in response145. Sci. Use the Previous and Next buttons to navigate the slides or the slide controller buttons at the end to navigate through each slide. DUBLIN, June 1, 2023 /PRNewswire/ -- The "Global Tuberculosis Treatment Market Report and Forecast 2023-2031" report has been added to ResearchAndMarkets.com's offering.. 11, e1005075 (2015). Nanocarriers may enhance drug uptake in cells and improve efficacy against intracellular pathogens. Timely detection, prevention, and treatment of these agents can dramatically save lives and . Covalent attachment of heparin and monoclonal antibodies to liposomes has been proven to selectively target infected RBCs in vitro105,108. In one example75, self-replicating mRNA encoding an antigen protein was complexed with a cationic dendrimer-based polymer. Finally, patient acceptability of these nanosystems will need to be addressed. Article Zhang, C. Y., Gao, J. Most importantly, it must be noted that the intravenous route of administration may not be practical in resource-limited settings or in mass drug administration campaigns. Further research and development with affordable large-scale production is necessary for a successful malaria vaccine, and nanotechnology could play a critical role in providing new approaches to protect all ages. Drugs with toxicity at these non-target sites are not good candidates for nanoencapsulation. ISSN 1748-3387 (print), Nanotechnology approaches for global infectious diseases, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-021-00866-8. It remains to be seen whether the need for chronic visits to a clinic deters patient adherence. Read more: In the medical field, the application of nanotechnology is known as nanomedicine, which includes the use of nanomaterials for diagnosis, treatment, control and prevention of diseases [ 31 , 32 ]. To study vascular permeability at infection sites, Evans blue was injected intravenously into guinea pigs following intradermal injection of microbial peptidases. Biophys. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Nature Nanotechnology (Nat. Evaluation in a murine tuberculosis model. It is believed that the nanoparticles are engulfed by macrophages, leading to intracellular activation of the prodrug, followed by release of the active moiety from the macrophages18,94. It is not clear if enhanced permeability is limited to rodent models or if it is observed in humans as well. Invest. Wound Repair Regen. The benefit of PEG coating was reduced at low infection severity. Mol. Transl. Drug Discov. Introduction Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an acquired neurodegenerative disease leading to a progressive and untreatable cognitive and behavioral impairment [ 1 - 3 ]. Development of an oral once-weekly drug delivery system for HIV antiretroviral therapy. Furthermore, in the event that these systems are applied orally, it may be important to understand the stability of the peptides in the enzyme-rich gastrointestinal environment. Merozoites replicate asexually through ring, trophozoite and schizont stages within RBC vacuoles to form new daughter cell merozoites that egress and infect other RBCs. 3b). 532, 555572 (2017). Bacillus CalmetteGuerin (BCG), which was introduced in 1921, is the sole approved TB vaccine, but it offers only limited protection132. Drug Discov. Feldman, R. A. et al. It must also be determined whether the increase in on-target accumulation is high enough to justify reformulation. To enable sustained release of nitric oxide, which has a short half-life, Duong et al.35 conjugated nitric oxide with star-shaped polymers. The infection is spread to a human through the bite of a female Anopheles mosquito, which injects the parasite Plasmodium in the form of sporozoites that migrate through the skin into the circulation. Proc. Rev. Nanotechnology approaches for global infectious diseases. Macrophages are common targets for bacteria (such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis), fungi (for example Aspergillus species) and viruses (such as HIV). Res. Cunha-Reis et al. Palliser, D. et al. Efavirenz and lopinavir nanoparticles made using this strategy are currently awaiting clinical testing (NCT02631473). However, the mucous covering, especially in patients suffering from cystic fibrosis, retards drug delivery to the bacterial biofilms. Commun. 15, 11451155 (2015). Nanoencapsulation enhanced circulation times of the antiretrovirals and increased their uptake into the mononuclear cells in peripheral blood and lymph nodes of macaques. Cu, Y., Booth, C. J. Biomaterials 145, 178191 (2017). Nanotechnol. A.R.K. Further testing in animal biofilm models and mechanistic confirmation must be done to reliably demonstrate the ability of nanoparticles to protect therapeutic payloads from enzymatic degradation. Opin. USA 115, E11988E11995 (2018). HIV-infected individuals require lifelong treatment to ensure control of the viral burden10. IDs are a major driver of morbidity and mortality globally, and their impact on low SDI countries is particularly grave. Melariri, P. et al. The combination therapy exhibited promising antimalarial efficacy in vivo against a resistant parasite strain113. Release 151, 202211 (2011). Adv. Traditional vaccines trigger the body's immune system to respond and protect the body from infection in the future. 2). In this Review, we highlighted how nanotechnology-based approaches can enable oral drug administration, infrequent drug administration and drug targeting to sites of infection, ultimately improving treatment efficacy. Kinch, M. S., Patridge, E., Plummer, M. & Hoyer, D. An analysis of FDA-approved drugs for infectious disease: antibacterial agents. Release 192, 131140 (2014). Van Ginderdeuren, E., Bassett, J., Hanrahan, C., Mutunga, L. & Van Rie, A. Proc. Of course, its utility is limited for systemic infections. The general synthetic routes to prepare nanomaterials, particularly useful for medical applications, are described together with their characterization, unique properties arising out of the small size, and potential applications including those for health care. Long-acting injectable antiretrovirals are widely considered breakthrough interventions; however, certain challenges remain. 9, 443 (2018). Specifically, nanoparticles of two antiretrovirals, cabotegravir and rilpivirine, are being actively pursued in the clinic. Broadly, these systems can be classified into two categoriessystems that control drug release with an excipient (such as a polymer or lipid) and those that rely on the slow dissolution of poorly soluble drug crystals in interstitial fluid (Fig. Rev. Infect. Nonetheless, the rapid translation of nanotechnologies from the bench to the people, and the impact that these systems have had on the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic provide great promise. Annu. & Wang, Z. Bioresponsive nanoparticles targeted to infectious microenvironments for sepsis management. Release 156, 258264 (2011). the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Nanomedicines are likely to be three-dimensional constructs of multiple components with preferred spatial arrangements. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S76150 (2015). A nanovector with complete discrimination for targeted delivery to Plasmodium falciparum-infected versus non-infected red blood cells in vitro. Drug release occurs via bulk degradation of the polymer and drug diffusion12 and can be modified by altering the hydrophobicity of the monomer, polymer chain length and particle size13. Parallel to the advances in designing nanotechnology-based systems for the treatment of HIV infection, TB and malaria, substantial efforts have been put in developing prevention strategies. To overcome mucous resistance in the respiratory tract, Nafee and colleagues encapsulated the quorum sensing inhibitor in lipid nanoparticles surface coated with polysorbate 80a co-polymer surfactant containing PEG34. Natl Acad. Control. The ability to self-medicate at home with infrequently administered oral dosage forms may help address this issue. Hence, nanotechnology-based therapy has the potential to curb this limitation as there are many advantages. Int. Fourth, the vaginal surface has several folds or rugae reducing drug accessibility. Latent Tuberculosis Infection: Updated and Consolidated Guidelines for Programmtic Management (WHO, 2018). In the lungs, mucous is secreted by goblet cells within the epithelium of mucous membranes. Res. Owing to the proximity of the fluorescent molecules, this mixture had low baseline fluorescence. Preclinical studies, predominantly in rodents, have identified several advantages of using nanoformulation for local therapies. In vitro confocal microscopy studies in Hep-2 cells showed that InvA497-functionalized liposomes had increased cell binding (>30-fold) compared with albumin-functionalized liposomes, and this was abrogated in competition experiments. Parashar, D., Aditya, N. P. & Murthy, R. S. R. Development of artemether and lumefantrine co-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers: physicochemical characterization and in vivo antimalarial activity. An siRNA-based microbicide protects mice from lethal herpes simplex virus 2 infection. 6), is the most prevalent parasitic disease in the world. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. 2, 552563 (2016). This includes academics, investors from industry and the government, and contract research and manufacturing organizations. SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein vaccine candidate NVX-CoV2373 immunogenicity in baboons and protection in mice. Lack of pharmacokinetic interaction between rilpivirine and integrase inhibitors dolutegravir and GSK1265744. In this section, we highlight the most advanced nanotechnologies in major IDsHIV infection, TB and malaria. Lancet 392, 17361788 (2018). Dis. Mater. Nature 263, 797800 (1976). & Cheng, A. G. Mechanisms of aminoglycoside ototoxicity and targets of hair cell protection. Prolonged and complicated dosing regimens with high pill burden result in lower patient adherence and, ultimately, failure of treatment. 56, 25352545 (2012). 21, 605629 (2014). Smiramoth, N. et al. Improved tissue uptake of PEGylated nanoparticles may be attributed to their higher diffusivity through the mucous layeran observation shown using multiple particle tracking experiments by the Hanes lab24. 1, 1000003 (2014). and G.T. Nanotechnol. One strategy for treating wound infections is the application of silver solutions using a cotton gauge. J. The formulation of nanomedicines for treating tuberculosis. Challenges to treating IDs are often compounded in low SDI countries. Despite their limitations, vaginal delivery with nanosystems has shown therapeutic potential in murine models. Agents Chemother. Pulmonary delivery is an attractive route for the treatment of respiratory infections as it may enable greater on-target drug exposure. Anti-Racism Hallmark Research Initiative Seminar: Blindfolded, running with scissors: A systematic and critical review of anonymous application procedures, Executive Master of Public Administration, Improving how the IMF does business could help billions of people worldwide, Advanced Clinical Anatomy - Postgraduate Course. Single dose and multiple dose studies of itraconazole nanoparticles. This includes investigative techniques that can complement cell and animal studies. These technologies, involving systems with a diameter of about one-thousandth of the thickness of a hair, stand to substantially impact the globes main sources of morbidity and mortality. Nanoformulations of rilpivirine for topical pericoital and systemic coitus-independent administration efficiently prevent HIV transmission. However, to have the maximum impact, nanotechnology solutions will need to overcome several financial, manufacturing and regulatory challenges. Xiong, M.-H. et al. Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality for 282 causes of death in 195 countries and territories, 19802017: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease Study 2017. In a mouse model of pulmonary P. aeruginosa infection, treatment with targeted nanoparticles improved survival over the free-drug control by nearly 50 percentage points. Thank you for visiting nature.com. a, The communicable diseases with the five highest mortality rates are lower respiratory infections, diarrhoeal diseases, TB, HIV infection and malaria. Immunization by a bacterial aerosol. NanoAbsorb is a solid microemulsion pre-concentrate formulation that can safely deliver the widely used drug artemether with higher antimalarial efficacy in vivo than the marketed formulation Larither110. Agents Chemother. New methods are being developed to evaluate nanoparticles in better ways. This limits their efficacy and plays a big role in why treating cancer can be so difficult. However, upon acidification of the mixture, the liposomes disintegrated and the lipids mixed, resulting in dequenching of the fluorescence. These bacteria can disseminate to more distant tissues and organs via the lymphatic system or bloodstream to result in extrapulmonary TB. Innovative and cost-effective nanotechnologies that take into consideration the challenges that are encountered low SDI countries are most likely to benefit patients. Nanomedicine 6, 237244 (2010). Other polymers used for sustained release include poly(anhydrides), poly(orthoesters), poly(cyanoacrylates) and poly(amides)12. But targeted drug therapies using nanoparticles also remain limited. Biol. It is also recommended that people who are infected with TB but do not have active disease (latent TB) receive treatment to eradicate the mycobacteria and prevent progress to active disease138. Ann. Release 220, 414424 (2015). Skin patches instead of needles: can nanotechnology vaccinate the world? Nanomedicine 12, 893900 (2016). TB is caused by the inhalation of droplet nuclei containing M. tuberculosis that enter the respiratory tract and infect the alveoli of the lungs. These wounds occur due to breakdowns in the wound repair pathway and chronic infection caused by opportunistic pathogens. AAPS J. There have also been several studies that show higher accumulation of nanocarriers at sites of infection compared with non-infected sites (reviewed in ref. In the lungs and spleen of infected mice, no tubercle bacilli could be detected after five oral doses of drug-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles administered every tenth day, whereas 46 daily doses of oral free drugs were required to achieve the same therapeutic benefit123. Infections are a dominant contributor to the global disease burden. Opportunities and urgent need Estefnia V. R. Campos, Anderson E. S. Pereira, Jhones Luiz de Oliveira, Lucas Bragana Carvalho, Nanoformulation of multiple combined drugs is an efficient method for designing innovative therapeutics and can prevent resistance of the malaria parasite. This is an issue we discussed in a recent paper. Furthermore, they found that nanoparticles were able to decrease Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm formation by >70% compared with untreated controls35. Topical drug delivery shares both challenges and therapeutic targets with pulmonary deliverybiofilm-forming opportunistic pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and P. aeruginosa have been implicated in both lung and skin infections. Schiffelers, R. M. et al. Vaughn, J. M. et al. To validate the benefit of N-acetyl cysteine in vivo, the authors treated mice with inflammatory lipopolysaccharide from P. aeruginosa, which led to enhanced mucous secretion in the lungs. The reader will glean that nanotechnology has been most actively studied in the clinic and in large animals for the treatment and prevention of HIV infection (Table 1). As. The antigen is formulated as virus-like particle and combined with a liposomal adjuvant system. The nanotechnology-based strategies for COVID-19 disease management include the development of tools for rapid, accurate and sensitive diagnosis, the improvement of contact tracing tools, the . Finally, we discuss challenges to translating these technologies from the laboratory to the clinic. Evolution of high-level resistance during low-level antibiotic exposure. Opin. Furthermore, the estimated CAGR for this market between 2021 and 2026 is around 11.9%. However, the poor aqueous solubility of itraconzole may have precluded the pulmonary administration of the unformulated drug. R.L. Chem. Encapsulation in nanocarriers offers the possibility of achieving drug targeting (Fig. The expression of certain targets/receptors in diseased areas may be elevated. 264, 1058910594 (1989). Administering the antiretroviral azidothymidine in poly(hexacyanoacrylate) nanoparticles improved its accumulation in reticuloendothelial system (RES) organs such as the liver, lungs and spleen44. Long-acting injectable antiretrovirals are the most clinically advanced nanotechnology in HIV treatment. These functionalized liposomes preferentially adhere to surface proteins decorating infected RBCs and reduce the overall parasitaemia. Each infected hepatocyte releases thousands of merozoites into the bloodstream, beginning a cycle of invasion of RBCs. These fragments were 7.5% of the mass of the original antibody, which enabled them to penetrate the glycoprotein coat on the microbe and access its epitope. Nanocarriers that disintegrate rapidly in the presence of bacterial phosphatase60 (made from diblock copolymers of poly(phosphoesters) and PEG) and lipase61 (made from triblock copolymers of poly(phosphoester), poly(caprolactone) and PEG) have been used for pathogen-triggered release of vancomycin. Using nanotechnology to prepare nanomaterials. To enhance vaginal residence, a common theme has been to develop systems that are rapidly transported across the mucous into the mucosa. Sci. Leal, J., Smyth, H. D. C. & Ghosh, D. Physicochemical properties of mucus and their impact on transmucosal drug delivery. In rats, 60% of the drug dose was found in the RES organs 8h after treatment with nanoparticles. That is, being able to adjust these methods so that we can get relevant and valuable information out of the studies. Makadia, H. K. & Siegel, S. J. Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) as biodegradable controlled drug delivery carrier. Their cost, for example. As nanocarriers are predominantly cleared by these cells (Fig. An antigen is what an antibody binds to. Liposome delivery of ciprofloxacin against intracellular Francisella tularensis infection. R.L. Q. Rev. September 17, 2022 Erwin van den Burg 8 min read Table of Contents: The application of bio-nanotechnology in tumor diagnosis and treatment: a view Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials in the Treatment of Life-threatening Diseases The Potential Benefits of Nanotechnology in Treating Alzheimer's Disease [FAQ] Nanotechnology Kills Cancer Cells. One example is. As part of the investment, both short-term and long-term solutions to malaria must be considered, such as using nanotechnology for treatment and vaccination. and JavaScript. Sharma, A., Pandey, R., Sharma, S. & Khuller, G. K. Chemotherapeutic efficacy of poly (DL-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticle encapsulated antitubercular drugs at sub-therapeutic dose against experimental tuberculosis. Luo, Y. et al. Jackson, L. A. et al. Opportunities and urgent need | Journal of Nanobiotechnology | Full Text Review Open Access Published: 05 September 2020 How can nanotechnology help to combat COVID-19? Preparation and evaluation of antigen/N-trimethylaminoethylmethacrylate chitosan conjugates for nasal immunization. J. Infect. Nanoscale 5, 687694 (2013). J. Immunol. Tissue Eng. Prim. As demonstrated during the current COVID-19 pandemic, nanotechnology can play a major role in global health. J. Infect. However, in vivo validation was not performed. Commun. Gene therapy works by editing, replacing, or altering gene expression instead of using drugs ( Figure 1 ). Given that most people with TB infection do not have symptoms, it can be challenging for them to complete their regimens139. Using a bacterial reporter strain, the authors confirmed sustained release of nitric oxide from the star-shaped polymer nanoparticles in vitro. Researchers are also exploring chitosan, a biodegradable and biocompatible polycationic polymer, for its ability to bind and protect DNA from nuclease degradation and for its mucoadhesive properties. And yet, the majority of these strategies have been limited to pre-clinical demonstrations; those that have progressed to a clinical stage, have often been suspended or, in the case of many diagnostics and monitoring devices, failed to reach broad distribution and implementation. Biodegradable long-circulating polymeric nanospheres. Nanobody conjugated PLGA nanoparticles for active targeting of African trypanosomiasis. Cohen, J. Sci. Infect. Pardi, N., Hogan, M. J., Porter, F. W. & Weissman, D. mRNA vaccinesa new era in vaccinology. Adv. A malaria vaccine adjuvant based on recombinant antigen binding to liposomes. Carlton, Victoria, Executive Master of Public Administration If the nanocarriers are administered systemically, it will be important to understand immune response to these systems as they are functionalized with peptides found in bacteria, and its effect on their pharmacokinetics and tolerability. Multiple antimicrobial agents can be packaged within the same nanoparticle to increase the likelihood of overcoming existing drug resistance mechanisms instead of using one drug alone (Fig. have a financial interest in Lyndra Therapeutics, Inc., a biotechnology company focused on the development of encapsulated gastric resident systems for extended drug delivery. Moreover, there has been some interest in developing long-acting nanoparticles for preventionincluding both pre-exposure prophylaxis (which requires long-term administration of two medications to achieve protection) and post-exposure prophylaxis (where administration of a single injection or long-acting oral medication would be especially valuable)89,90. In a study with ciprofloxacin (a drug with higher water solubility), Wong et al. developed mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with isoniazid for treating intracellular M. tuberculosis66. Giardiello, M. et al. Ther. Antimicrob. The encapsulation of drugs in nanocarriers such as liposomes, polymer nanoparticles, or prepared drug nanocrystals can enable sustained drug delivery in a localized manner (left). 52, e5 (2019). Despite most advanced nanosuspensions containing >90% drug, clinical use of this technology has been limited to drugs that have a daily oral dose of <2550mg. When co-administered with exogenous -lactamase, piperacillin-loaded liposomes provided twofold growth inhibition compared with the free drug co-administered with -lactamase. The specificity of release is unclear as even host enzymes may act as triggers. Hawn, T. R. et al. 1, 1029 (2016). Rev. Control. 7, 13184 (2016). In another study, Toti et al. Chemother. Exp. Global Tuberculosis Report 2018 (WHO, 2018). Impressively, pre-treatment with N-acetyl cysteine restored transfection efficiency in the inflammation model. It can be used to restore cell function in monogenic disorders or to endow cells with new capabilities. Soc. Furthermore, M. tuberculosis (Fig. In one study48, there was an ~40-fold greater liposome concentration (per cent injected dose per gram of tissue) in the abscess compared with the muscle. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 10 million people developed TB in 2017 with a global economic burden amounting to US$12 billion annually117,118. Nanotechnology is already being used to develop many new kinds of batteries that are quicker-charging, more efficient, lighter weight, have a higher power density, and hold electrical charge longer. As such, many principles of engineering biofilm-penetrating nanosystems for pulmonary delivery can be leveraged for topical delivery. 121) and the dearth of others in the pipeline, reformulating existing drugs in nanocarriers is an attractive way of having an immediate impact on the treatment of TB. There is only one malaria vaccine candidate that has received a positive regulatory assessment: RTS,S/AS01 (RTS,S) (Mosquirix), which is an injectable vaccine that provides partial protection against malaria in young children115. and JavaScript. Drug molecules released while nanocarriers are in circulation are subject to non-selective distribution. We highlight promising preclinical studies and discuss challenges to their clinical translation. Within minutes, the sporozoites reach the liver, where they invade hepatocytes and proliferate to form merozoites. In some cases, a lack of drug efficacy can be attributed to pathogen resistance, which then requires a more expensive drug regimen for cure3. Nacucchio, M. C., Bellora, M. J., Sordelli, D. O. In contrast, half-lives of rilpivirine and cabotegravir in tablets have been estimated to be ~12days (refs. & Khuller, G. Alginate-based sustained release drug delivery systems for tuberculosis. The highest tissue uptake was achieved with PEG-coated nanoparticles; however, tissue uptake was limited to the lower reproductive tract. Vaccine 29, 69596966 (2011). Nanotechnology has the potential to transform both detection and treatment of a wide range of diseases. The aim is to provide new treatments for diseases that are difficult or even impossible to treat today. University of Melbourne provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation AU. Hence, nanocarriers have been used for targeting drugs to macrophages, which are common sites of infection. High mortality rates are associated with lower respiratory infections, diarrhoea, tuberculosis (TB), human. Nat. volume16,pages 369384 (2021)Cite this article. Watch this video on YouTube How diseases can be targeted using nanotechnology - The more we learn about bio-nano science, the easier it will be to design nanoparticles that behave like we want them to. Main Infections are a dominant contributor to the global disease burden. Marques, J. et al. Slider with three articles shown per slide. Res. For this, we have developed an orally administered gastric retentive dosage form that can reduce dosing frequency from daily to weekly98. Control. Despite early positive results in clinical trials for urinary tract infections and Mycobacterium infections15, development of the formulation was discontinued in 2000. Acta 1138, 318326 (1992). Antimicrob. 56, 263267 (2017). Impressively, only a single dose of the liposomal combination produced the same effect. Cunha-Reis, C. et al. This is motivated by cases of low drug penetration into infected tissues (for example, low penetration of antiretrovirals into the brain and lymph nodes10 and anti-TB drugs into cavitary lesions41), drug distribution into sites of toxicity (such as aminoglycosides in the ear42) and killing of commensal microbiota43. Molla, A., Yamamoto, T., Akaike, T., Miyoshi, S. & Maeda, H. Activation of hageman factor and prekallikrein and generation of kinin by various microbial proteinases. Imaging In Vivo Current imaging methods can only detect cancers once they have made a visible change to a tissue, by which time, thousands of cells will have proliferated and perhaps metastasized. Nanotechnology offers the means to target chemotherapies directly and selectively to cancerous cells and neoplasms, guide in surgical resection of tumors, and enhance the therapeutic efficacy of radiation-based and other current treatment modalities. These principles, which the authors relate to the concept of nanoequity, should guide the development and implementation of nanotechnology strategies for global health problems. 102, 102115 (2016). Furthermore, to verify the ability of the nanocarriers to protect the drug from carbapenem-degrading enzymes, the imipenem formulations were tested with and without the addition of exogenous carbapenemase in Escherischia coli. Nanotechnology in medicinenanomedicineis extensively employed to diagnose, treat, and prevent pulmonary diseases.
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